'HISTORY OF THE GREAT WAR BASED ON OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS. THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA 1914-1918. VOLUME I.' [‎17r] (38/454)

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY 13
divided into sub-tribes and clans; and the composition of
all of them is liable to continual fluctuation. As the authority
of the tribal “ Shaikhs ” was always greater than that of
Turkish law and administration and as their number and
extent of authority fluctuated with the composition of the
various tribal units, it will be realised that Arab administration
is sufficiently difficult and complex on this score alone. In
practice, tribal government depends generally on the free
consent of the tribesmen, and that consent has to be obtained
in councils where the Arab love of intrigue and argument
produce interminable and tortuous discussion.
The Kurds predominate in the hills, and their lawlessness
has occasioned much trouble in the past. They have not the
subtlety and imagination of the Arab, but are more industrious
and capable workers; they are steadier and cooler in danger
and possess a better physique ; but being more callous they
are extraordinarily reckless about taking life. On the other
hand, they are often good-humoured, hospitable, and in some
ways frank and loyal; though in war and brigandage they
are little hampered by scruples of good faith. As fighters they
are generally brave and determined and many of them are
admirable horsemen. They are good marksmen.
Religion in Mesopotamia is for the most part a question
of race ; with few exceptions, all Arabs, Kurds, Turks and
Persians are Musalmans; all Armenians and Syrians are
Christians; and Jews, Yezdis, Sabians and Chabaks have
their own distinctive religions. Of the Musalmans, the Turks,
Kurds and Arabs of Upper Mesopotamia are Sunnis ; the
Persians and most of the Arabs of Lower Mesopotamia are
Shiahs. There are many shrines—both Sunni and Shiah—in
the country, and the strife and differences between the two
sects are frequently a cause of serious embarrassment to the
administration.
Under the Turks, the country was divided into vilayets,
each under a Vali or Governor. The area we are concerned
with consisted of the three vilayets of Mosul, Baghdad and
Basra ; each vilayet was again sub-divided into sanjaqs, and
these into still further sub-divisions. The administration was
thoroughly inefficient and was only effective in certain limited
areas—chiefly in some of the larger towns. Each tribe was
assessed at a certain revenue and so long as that was paid
the tribe was practically exempt from Turkish authority.
The collection of this revenue gave constant trouble and not
infrequently led to open rebellion, when traffic was held up,
crops destroyed, and the banks of the rivers broken down.